The two big things you need to know right away are:

1) Budget for players/studio/(other)
2) Deadline.

There may be other things to determine before actually writing music, but these are the two big ones.

Budget - The String Section 
I like to know what budget I have for strings so I know what I can write for. Sometimes the ensemble size and make up is pre-determined. Some producers I work for will tell me what section they want. Some will want me to determine it. They just say, “we have this much money, what can we do?” These days with MIDI and samples there are many options.

Given a choice and good budget, I prefer everything “live” (at least in the string section). It’s just easier that way, and sounds better (assuming you have great session players, and for now, I will assume you have great players).

I’ve worked on many “custom” albums (non record label) where I have had to be very creative with the budget. I have done songs with just cellos, a single cello sound is weightier, fuller than a single violin. Don Sebesky, an arranger of many jazz albums has done this effectively on some albums. It’s a bit darker than a section including violins and violas, but only takes 3-4 cellist, or even 1 with 3-4 tracks to overdub. I have also used the string quartet a lot (two violins, one viola, one cello) on a number of projects, and have even suggested it when I could have had a larger section because the intimacy from a string quartet fit the song better, but this tends to work very well in folk based styles, especially alongside acoustic guitars. There has been a new interest in the string quartet the past several years.

Another thing I have done many times, and is quite common these days is blending real strings with MIDI or sampled strings, and I have done the MIDI/sampled strings only. There have been many projects I have been called into to “make up the arrangement” to tape (or digital).

I’m not a great keyboardist, but I am good enough at the arranging to know how to make it sound real enough. I prefer not making it up on the spot, but, much like my story in Part 2, sometimes when a client has had me make it up on the spot, I go for a certain simplicity not achieved if I have time to “write it”, and therefore being “trick”.

The bottom line is to know what you have available before you start writing.
 
Know which strings you will have and how many of them.

A general rule of thumb is this: You need at least three violins to get a decent ensemble unison (one note at a time) sound. Two violas for a decent ensemble unison. A single cello can produce a good unison.

Here are a few ensembles I’ve used a lot from least expensive on up:

1) Cello, or cello‘s only. Economical, but a darker, lower, even heavier
sound. A solo cello is nice also!

2) String Quartet. A very standard string ensemble that works for very intimate songs, folk music and many others. Classical music is rich in literature for the string quartet. Haydn string quartets are a great place to begin your education because the writing is simpler than Mozart, Beethoven, Debussy or Ravel.

3) Violins and Cellos only. No violas. I’ve done this for many albums, particularly pop albums. You can cover a lot of range with violins and cellos.

4) Violins, Violas, Cellos (usually eight-ten violins, 2-3 violas, 2-3 cellos). This is my standard record date section. I like to have one more violin doing the violin 1 part than in the violin 2 section. I also like the warmth the violas add.

5) #4 but with 1-2 double basses. Depending on the song, I like a double bass (acoustic bass).

There are so many combinations that can work, and also many books offering suggestions about combinations. A good standard book for a recording arranger (sweetener emphasis) is Don Sebesky’s The Contemporary Arranger and Peter Alexander’s Professional Orchestration 2A: Orchestrating the Melody Within the String Section. Three other good books for string writing are by Sammy Nestico (The Complete Arranger), Nelson Riddle (Arranged by Nelson Riddle) and Henry Mancini (Sound and Scores).

The Recording Studio
Usually that’s determined by the producer who has hired me.

If it’s my choice, I certainly have my favorites. If it’s your choice, be very careful to hire a studio that’s had real string section recording experience.

The most important thing is having an engineer who knows how strings (real strings) are supposed to sound! Sorry to say this, but many people who sell themselves as engineers do not, and have added to a very bad experience for arrangers. There are many considerations for hiring a studio that can handle a live string date, even such basics as having enough headphones (though many recording string players these days bring their own), but also, things like music stands and many others.

But, the “sound” is what’s most important. Some studios are just plain great at string and orchestral recording.

Another thing: There are a couple engineers I like doing my string dates with because not only do they meet the requirements already mentioned, but also they can “speak string language” to a degree. Professional string players can be very “business”, and not easy to “hang with”. These folks do, and have done much music in their life, and can usually spot an amateur arrangement, arranger, conductor, engineer pretty quick. All considered, that’s good! So, if I have an engineer who not only gets a great sound, but also knows how to work with the players, it adds for a more enjoyable session.

As a simple example.

Most professional string players and sections do not need to run through a piece of music many times, once is often enough if the music is written right. An inexperienced engineer can frustrate the players really fast (and make you look bad in the process) if they’re asked to do so. They may even think you’re doubling, tripling tracks more than they agreed, and get a bit miffed! There are many examples we can address later about these things.

Deadline
You also must know when you are expected to deliver the arrangement.

I’ve had both extremes in my life including full orchestra overnight (one time even being responsible for the “parts” by hand, - pre Finale!).

I like to know my deadline. I like working with a deadline, but preferably, a comfortable, or at least reasonable deadline. I usually like to “plan” 1-2 days per song, but can certainly do it faster if needed, and of course this depends on the style, length and others variables. These days, I do the parts myself, extracted from Finale, so, I allow time for that as well.

Usually fees for the arrangement are discussed before the hiring. Price may often be the reason why you were chosen, but hopefully you were chosen because of the quality of your work. Fees can vary greatly for a single string arrangement from $500 - $3,000+. Most of this depends on your name value. You can consult many resources for rates.

IMPORTANT: You work for them! - Period!

Now, let’s be straight here. In any collaborative effort there are differences in opinion. That’s just life, and part of the human experience. You as the arranger, are certainly entitled to your own opinion, and I never recommend compromising your work, or yourself, beyond what you can, and still retain your integrity.

But in the final analysis, they (the producer, the artist, whoever is paying you) is the boss!

My preference is to work with an experienced producer rather than the artist. That’s because working directly with the artist can be, well….difficult. Not because they’re difficult people per se, but because if they don’t know what’s involved with strings they tend to complicate the situation.

Result - nothing gets done.

Most of the producers I work with have experience working with string sections and arrangers. The result is that the experienced producer generally understands my needs as an arranger, and once the creative work begins, leaves me alone to do it.

By comparison, the artist (usually being a singer, songwriter) does not have as much experience in this aspect of production. As a result, there can be a tendency to interfere prematurely in your work.

Where it gets tough is when the artist is also the executive producer (the money person). In this situation, and even when working directly with the producer you still have to be a bit of a diplomat!

A little story

Like a lot of arrangers, in my early days, I liked to always have a new idea, or some cool technique, that I could use when I wrote for strings. It could be a clever counterline, a re-harmonization, string effect, whatever.

Many years ago there was an Asian producer for whom I arranged literally hundreds of albums. This producer loved strings. So every album usually had 5-6 songs with a string section.

One evening he called and said he had everything set up for the string date the next morning at 10:00 AM! I freaked! He’d neglected to tell me prior to his call which songs he wanted strings with (as he should have days earlier), and then went ahead and booked the session, players and all!

The first thing I did was to call the contractor (who was also the concertmaster/lead violinist) and try to move the date. She said there was no way it could be moved because she’d already set it up.

So, at about 7:00 PM for a 10:00 AM call - I began arranging all six songs.

Oh, by the way, besides writing the arrangements, I was also responsible for the score and all the parts. I had no time to try out something new. I had to go with my (primarily) first (gut) ideas. Luckily, this string section was violins and cellos only. This let me do a two-stave score (like a piano part - treble and bass clef), then reproduce the score and have the players read directly from it.

NOTE: Please keep in mind, I had no choice here, no copyist was available, etc. I don’t recommend you make a habit of this, strings players can be very brutal. When you can, have separate parts.

I didn’t even use the piano, I sat down and wrote the arrangements while sitting on the sofa! Believe me, I wrote a lot of “pads” (whole notes) and single high lines - keeping it all as simple as possible because (again), there was no time to be innovative!

The next morning, we recorded the songs with me conducting.

After the players left, the producer said, “Ric, let’s go to lunch.” At lunch he said, “Those were the best arrangements you’ve ever done for me.”

I was stunned (and of course, relieved). I had done about 50 songs for him before this. Most were very cool arrangements, and he did like them. BUT…(here’s the moral of the story): this producer loved simplicity. Even though he told me he loved simplicity, I was too young and stubborn to really get it. In this crunch deadline situation I had finally written simple enough for his desire. So…he was right, I was wrong (if you will).

I’ll never forget this experience because it taught me to not be afraid to take a simpler, (more communicative?) approach. Sometimes being innovative or “cool” is, well…not being cool. I like to look at this as God stepping in and forcing a piece of wisdom for me!

After that, he and I did many other projects together.

I don’t mean to belabor this point, but when writing for others, you have to realize that it’s a collaborative effort. We as arrangers aren’t always right and usually don’t have the final say, much like an actor whose best scene ends up on the cutting room floor.

I have, over the years, learned to actually enjoy the collaborative exchange, and I’ve also learned to handle it better.

I close with these final thoughts.

Most of my life I’ve been a work-for-hire arranger. However, since about 1989, I’ve kept my own artist career active to do my music my way. This helps me keep a balance. I encourage you to do the same. Do the work that pays the bills, but also do writing of your own, whether album projects, concert works, whatever, to keep that balance which also leads to a more objective view when doing projects for others.

Also, beware of always writing for other instruments with an instrument.

I’ve written at the piano, the guitar, the computer, MIDI keyboards, and with just pencil and paper - whatever works! However, I do believe that if you write at an instrument for other instruments, your skills (or lack of skills) on the instrument on which you’re writing may get in the way.

Fortunately I studied with “old school” teachers that, as part of my training, had me write away from an instrument in case I needed to. Many great composers worked at a piano, many didn’t. Much depends on the styles you are working with. Obviously, the more advanced the harmonies, the more the tendency to write on the piano (Ravel did).

If you’re tied to writing at an instrument, as an exercise, try writing just at a desk. Then check your work. A quick way to develop this skill is through learning solfege which teaches you to sing lines with comprehension away from the piano.

I usually orchestrate away from an instrument without sample libraries as I like to be clear in my head what I’m doing. I do hope this makes sense. If you’re doing all, or a majority of your orchestration, with sample libraries, again, I encourage you to step away from the technology and develop your inner ear by orchestrating directly to pad.

Ric Flauding

www.ricflauding.com

But string arranging is a specific term applied to someone who creates string (and other instruments) arrangements for recordings (albums), often as a “sweetener” which is a term for recording the strings after the rhythm section (band) has been recorded.

One thing I want to say is that string arranging is a creative work.

It’s not just making the printed “parts” (copying or transcribing) for the players. Arranging (be it strings, or any other instruments) is basically composing, but in a collaborative way. You (as the arranger) are in reality a “co” composer, but, because of the copyright laws, and other things, you’re not usually entitled to royalties for such work. There are always exceptions, and everything can be negotiable, but generally, arranging for recording (as a sweetening arranger) is a work-for-hire task. But, that does not mean it is a less creative task!

I’ve always held the view that arranging is not a lesser skill than composing. In many ways, it’s a skill that requires more knowledge. Most composers throughout history were also arrangers. Many used folk tunes, chant, and other melodies as a starting point.

Just about any composing technique can be used as an arranging technique, of course, depending on the project.

Now, having said the above, let me add: I personally believe an arrangement, even just a string arrangement, can contribute greatly to the success of a song. But, I don’t believe a great arrangement can save a bad song! This is a general statement, but, coming after many years of doing arranging. None the less, unless you’re a big name, you’re hired to add your arrangement and not critique the song (if you want to keep the gig!)

www.ricflauding.com

A guitar capo is a clamp device that you position on different frets of the guitar to change the pitch or key of the open strings. I like to describe it to students as a device that “acts” as if it cut off your frets! Scary huh? Joking aside. The capo does (in a sense) remove frets from your guitar…

Before getting into some applications with the capo, lets get some basics out of the way.

1) Put the capo as close to the forward most fret (bar) as possible without disturbing your fingering. Put it on and play a bit to make sure it feels good where you put it, and that you hear no “buzz” from the open strings.

2) Put the capo on “perpendicular”. Make sure it is not angled. Also, make sure it is on fairly tight. Some capos are adjustable, if so, make sure it is on tight enough to secure good tuning. A moving capo may put the strings out of tune.

3) Tune the guitar after you capo! The positioning of the capo will affect the tuning. Of course this will depend on the guitar you are using and other things as well. But, I would recommend you make a habit of this.

Kinds of capos:

There are several kinds of capos. I myself have a few. I primarily use the Shubb adjustable made of stainless steel (I use this mostly for recording sessions). I also use the Kyser quick capo (usually for “live” performance).

I also may use two capos (or have handy) for live playing if there is a particular key change. There are also “partial” capos, “cut” capos, and probably a whole bunch others!

Now, some applications:

The applications I will present go basically from simple, to more advanced. So, if a particular application does not apply to you, move on.

Beginning Application:

If you are a guitarist who plays mostly solo (by yourself), or a beginner, the following may work for you.

For beginners, I might recommend you try a capo if your guitar is physically difficult to play. Often, a beginning guitar (usually a less costly guitar) has strings that are further off the fingerboard, especially in the open, and first positions (the nut of the guitar might be placed too high). Even some good guitars are made this way for better sound. When I taught private guitar (and my wife taught as well) we would recommend this to students (especially young ones) to try this before purchasing another guitar.

For more advanced players, I might recommend the capo for solo guitar pieces, even classical. I realize the classical mentality is to do pieces “as written”, but, much guitar literature is a transcription for guitar, from something else such as a Lute, Harpsichord or other instruments. Knowing music history as I do, I do not think the composers/arrangers would mind, and….well…do they have a choice!

I myself like to do many Bach pieces that are written in “G”, capo’d on the second fret (in “A”). I like the sound there better as it is less muddy (rolls off some low end). Of course this all depends on the guitar you are using, as they are all different, and you just have to experiment a bit to see what works for you. The higher you position the capo (moving forward, towards you), the less bass you’ll have, and the more the sound moves towards something like a mandolin. I’ll get more into applying this below.

You need to know this:

The difference from one fret to another (on the same string), either up, or down is called a “half step” (or “semitone“). So, if you position your capo on the first fret, all of the open strings will now sound ½ step higher (low “E” becomes “F”). Doing songs in a different key than originally notated become easier with this device, of course,…depending on the song style.

Let’s say you have a song with three chords: G / C / D.

Now, if you place the capo on the second fret, you can play the same chords (chord “shapes”) and it will “sound” in the key of “A”: A / D / E.

Keep in mind the chord “shape” (how you finger the chord) remains the same, the chord “sound” changes!

If you wanted to use the same chord shapes but play those chords in the key of “Bb” you would place the capo on the third fret, playing the same G / C / D chord shapes giving you Bb / Eb / F….Make sense?

Lets take it a step further:

You could also place the capo on the first fret and play an “A” chord (standard “A” open chord shape) and it would sound Bb! You can play any open chord you know and do the same. Try it with a “C” chord, a “D”, etc… Fun huh?

This same logic can be also used in learning “Barre Chords” where your first finger in a sense becomes the capo, but with less of the “open string” sound.

One thing I must advise:

If you use a capo primarily to avoid learning other keys and chords, I recommend that you reconsider this idea. If your goal is to be a better overall guitarist and musician, learning those other keys and chords is a must. For quite a number of styles a capo can be a bit of a chore to use and move around. Certainly musical styles that have key changes and or modulatory type chord progressions (lets just say “more“ chords, or more “complex“ chords like a G13 b9, etc.). So, consider learning those chords and keys also!

More applications (recording and performing):

The capo is an invaluable tool in recording. Many acoustic styles don’t incorporate drum kits, electric bass and other instruments that can tend to eat up a lot of the sonic “area” (frequencies) for acoustic guitar. This situation allows for some very creative usage of the capo as a “guitar orchestrating” tool.

For example, I may use three or more recording tracks of acoustic guitar combining nylon and steel string guitars. Each track will contain the same basic chords but played in different positions and/or inversions, even different tunings using the capo to create different voicings. There are many combinations that can be used, and in doing this you can create harp type effects, and other instruments such as the mandolin.

If you have two-three tracks to record on try this simple experiment:

1) Play a regular, open “G” chord, (or G5) with just quarter notes (one strum per beat - keep the tempo fairly slow for now), and just do a few measures. Keep/save that track.

2) For the second track place your capo on the fifth fret and play a “D” (or D2 chord with the same rhythm and tempo, avoiding hitting the low “E“ (sixth string ), and the fifth string (“A). Keep/save the two tracks.

Now, you could stop here and it should sound kinda cool! Or you can………..

3) Place your capo on the tenth fret and play an “A” (or A2) chord combined with the first two tracks.

Now, if you can “pan” (space) your tracks on your recording unit, I would recommend putting the first guitar “center”, the second guitar all the way to the left (hard left as they say), the third guitar hard right. Check it out.

With different guitars (steel string, nylon, etc,) you’ll get some great sounds!

If you used the “2”chords, technically you are doing a little more than a straight “G” chord (triad). You are doing a “G2” or “G add 9” but do not worry about this for now, the combined sound will work in most cases where a basic “G” chord is asked for. If you want or need a “term” for this combined sound, you may call it “Pandiatonic”. Some music theorists also use the term “Plurality” chords/harmony to describe it. For now, don’t worry about that.

If you have a simple recording unit you can do some very pleasant sounds this way.

Now, the arranger in me needs to add: If you do this for recording projects, keep in mind you do not have to do this all the way through a song.

You may opt. for starting with this as an “Intro“ (just using the chords, say from the Verse, or even the chords from the Chorus as a kind of “hint”), but when the actual first verse starts you have just the melody with one guitar accompanying. The combinations are near endless, and “arranging” this way will be for another discussion.

“But I don’t record” you say!…Another (“live”) application:

I have also done this technique in church worship bands where there are two guitars, especially two acoustics. If there are several instruments playing chords (harmonic drivers), I may opt for capoing (especially on higher frets), and playing high chords, somewhat mandolin like. This is one of my favorite things in a folk, alternative worship band setting. Not only do I do this because it sounds cool, BUT, it can also help the overall sound, and especially help with the vocals because you (and hopefully others) are NOT playing all the chords in the same register. You are helping to create some “harmonic space” (a cool term to throw on em!). Everyone playing in the same harmonic space is a rather large problem in many church bands (and again, for another discussion). Non the less, try this…

Lets say your song again uses G / C / D, and lets throw in an E MIN.

Let your other guitarist (assuming there are 2) play the chords as is.

You place the capo on the seventh fret and play these chord shapes: C / F / G / A MIN.

Be sure and practice this BEFORE rehearsal.

For me, I like to use the capo for “sonic” reasons, less than for convenience. Not that convenience is wrong, often it is the best, and faster solution.

The sonic reasons may be somewhat obvious - taking advantage of the “open” strings which on a good acoustic guitar can be heavenly!

If you do use a capo frequently, I would also highly recommend learning “transpositions“. I know some printed music charts tell you where to capo, but, I have found misprints on those charts, especially the lyric/chord symbol types. So, knowing transpositions is a very good thing, and not that difficult to learn! Some companies sell “transposing guides”, such as Shubb: http://www.shubb.com/transposer/index.html

A free guide is available here: http://www.bigcitystrings.com/capo.htm

You can reach Ric Flauding at www.ricflauding.com